Article citation information:
Lasota, M., Jacyna, M. Application
of the FMEA method to support risk assessment in the organization of road
transport of oversize loads. Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport. 2026, 132, 219-242. ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2026.132.12
Michał LASOTA[1],
Marianna JACYNA[2]
APPLICATION OF THE FMEA METHOD TO SUPPORT RISK ASSESSMENT IN THE
ORGANIZATION OF ROAD TRANSPORT OF OVERSIZE LOADS
Summary. The
transport of oversize loads is a highly complex logistics process in technical,
organizational, and legal terms. It requires precise planning and coordination
among numerous stakeholders. Due to potential hazards to road traffic safety
and infrastructure, the application of risk assessment tools to support
operational decision-making is essential. The aim of this article is to apply
the FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis) method to risk assessment in the
organization of oversize road transport. Based on a case study involving the
transport of a power transformer, risk factors were identified, values were
assigned for severity, occurrence, and detection, and Risk Priority Numbers,
RPNs, were calculated. The analysis made it possible to identify the dominant
sources of risk and to propose preventive and corrective measures, including
control procedures, technical inspections, and weather monitoring. The results
confirm that the FMEA method is a useful tool for risk assessment and decision
support, enabling the prioritization of hazards and contributing to improved
safety and efficiency in oversize transport. The recommendations resulting from
the study include the implementation of training, the standardization of
procedures, the use of digital technologies for real-time risk monitoring and
analysis, and the introduction of regular audits and systematic reviews of
operational procedures.
Keywords: oversize
loads, road transport, risk assessment, FMEA method
1.
INTRODUCTION
Compared
with other modes of transport, road transport provides significantly greater
operational flexibility and shorter delivery times, particularly for smaller
consignments. It also facilitates supply chain planning and constitutes a key
component of modern logistics systems.
Despite
its numerous advantages, road transport has significant limitations and
generates specific risks. These include limited load capacity, high
susceptibility to road and weather conditions, environmental impacts associated
with exhaust emissions and noise, and accelerated degradation of road
infrastructure. These issues are particularly relevant in the case of oversize
load transport. This type of transport is regarded as one of the most complex
and demanding areas of road transport from technical, organizational, and legal
perspectives. An oversize load is a load whose transport causes the vehicle or
vehicle combination to exceed the permissible dimensional or mass parameters,
including length, width, height, gross vehicle weight, or axle load. Such transport
requires an individual approach and the use of specialized technical and
organizational solutions. The most commonly transported oversize loads include
structural components of engineering structures, bridge spans, silos, tanks,
generators, transformers, wind turbine components, and large construction
machinery.
Each
oversize load transport operation is a complex logistics undertaking requiring
detailed planning and coordination among multiple entities. This process
includes the development of a detailed route plan that accounts for
infrastructure constraints, such as the load-bearing capacity of bridges,
horizontal curve radii, road width, and vertical clearances under viaducts and
other engineering structures. It also involves selecting appropriate transport
equipment, preparing the required documentation, and obtaining relevant permits
from road authorities. Cooperation with the police, escort services, and
operators of energy, railway, and telecommunications infrastructure is often
necessary to ensure safe and uninterrupted transport.
Due to
the specific characteristics of the load, oversize transport is associated with
substantial operational risk. The main risk factors include damage to the load
or road infrastructure, delays caused by planning errors, failures of transport
equipment, and the risk of road accidents. In addition, unforeseen events, such
as adverse weather conditions, road closures, or vehicle breakdowns, require
rapid operational decision-making, often under conditions of uncertainty and
time pressure. Minimizing these risks requires not only practical experience
but also the application of appropriate risk analysis and risk assessment
methods at the planning stage. Figure 1 presents a general framework for the
implementation process of oversize road transport.
As
indicated by the range of aspects shown in Figure 1 that must be considered
during planning, the organization of oversize transport is a complex and
multidimensional issue. This process requires the simultaneous consideration of
numerous interrelated technical, organizational, legal, and logistics factors.
Proper
coordination of all elements is crucial to ensuring transport safety,
minimizing the risk of disruptions, and ensuring the efficient implementation
of the entire transport project.
Fig. 1. Framework for organizing oversize road
transport
Source: own elaboration
Therefore,
the aim of this article is to assess risk using the FMEA (Failure Mode and
Effects Analysis) method as a tool to support the decision-making process in
planning and organizing safe oversize transport. The work aims to identify and analyze potential sources of risk associated with this type
of transport and to develop preventive and corrective measures that can
contribute to increased safety and operational efficiency.
The
entire article is divided into five parts. The first part is an introduction,
outlining the main challenges in organizing oversize transport. The next
section is a critical analysis of the literature on risk assessment, oversize
transport planning, and ensuring safety in road transport. In this context, the
authors point out that a key element of ensuring safety is the identification
and assessment of risks at individual stages of transport execution.
Furthermore, the role of selecting appropriate measures is emphasized. The
third part analyzes the risk and the methods and
tools for its measurement. The authors present an algorithm for conducting and
assessing the risk of organizing oversize road transport at various stages of
implementation. The next sections include an algorithm for risk assessment
using the FMEA method and a practical example of its application. The article
concludes with conclusions from the conducted analyses.
2. DECISION-MAKING PROBLEMS AND SAFETY IN THE
ORGANIZATION OF OVERSIZE TRANSPORT: A LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Planning and safety in oversize transport
Road transport of oversize loads may be defined as
the movement of a load for which at least one permissible parameter of the
vehicle or vehicle combination is exceeded:
·
permissible gross vehicle mass or axle load
specified in applicable regulations [36].
In the literature, this type of operation is
referred to using terms such as oversize transport, transport with exceeded
gauge limits, or exceptional transport with exceeded gauge limits [37].
The concept of an oversize load refers to a load
whose transport to the destination, due to its dimensions or mass, requires
detailed route planning and the use of specialized means of transport with
technical parameters, design, load-bearing capacity, and markings that differ
from standard transport equipment. Oversize load units also require the use of
loading equipment with a lifting capacity corresponding to the mass of the
transported load [7]. Oversize loads can be classified according to
their external dimensions, mass, and shape. According to the authors of [30], oversize loads can be divided into six basic
categories: standard oversize loads, special oversize loads, heavy loads, heavy
loads with concentrated mass, bulky loads, and long loads.
Planning oversize transport is a key element in
ensuring road transport safety. Due to the specific nature of this type of
operation, which involves the movement of loads exceeding permissible
dimensional or mass parameters, the planning stage is essential for mitigating
technical, organizational, and road safety risks [8]. Proper preparation of the process minimizes
hazards to both road users and transport infrastructure. The basis for planning
is the analysis of risk factors and their impact on safety in various
dimensions. Parameters affecting the static and dynamic stability of the
vehicle combination are determined at the stage of selecting the means of
transport and configuring the vehicle combination. Proper distribution of the center of gravity, appropriate vehicle selection, and
effective load securing ensure technical safety by reducing the risk of damage
to the vehicle, the load, and the road surface. Figure 2 presents the
relationship between planning and the safety level in oversize road transport.
Fig. 2. Relationship between planning areas and
safety management in oversize road transport
Source: own elaboration
From a technical perspective,
planning primarily involves selecting an appropriate means of transport adapted
to the mass, dimensions, and characteristics of the transported load.
Determining the center of gravity and the stability
of the vehicle combination is also essential, as is selecting appropriate
securing devices, such as beams, chains, belts, and wedges. Checking axle loads
and ensuring the uniform distribution of mass on the transport platform make it
possible to maintain permissible axle loads and ensure vehicle stability during
movement [31]. Properly planned technical
preparation of the vehicle reduces the risk of loss of stability on curves,
chassis failure, and load damage, which contributes to a high level of
technical safety in transport.
Route planning, in turn, focuses on selecting the
optimal route with the lowest risk of collision with infrastructure elements,
taking into account vertical clearances under viaducts, turning radii,
carriageway width, and road gradient [2]. The analysis of road conditions
and the development of alternative routes enable an effective response to
emergency situations, which contributes to improved road safety and reduced
downtime.
In schedule planning, it is
essential to correctly determine the time of day and the planned transport
date, define time windows in urban areas, and coordinate permits with limited
validity periods [40]. These actions reduce the risk of
conflict with general traffic, minimize disruptions to local traffic, and
improve the smooth movement of the transport convoy.
Formal and legal aspects also have a
significant impact on safety. Obtaining appropriate permits, making
arrangements with road authorities, the police, and other relevant services,
and preparing complete transport and technical documentation ensure compliance
with applicable national and European Union regulations [47]. This reduces the risk of
administrative sanctions, increases the trust of inspection authorities and
logistics partners, and contributes to maintaining high standards of legal and
organizational safety.
Organizational planning includes coordinating the work of
drivers, escort personnel, and accompanying services, as well as ensuring
effective communication and response to emergency situations [39]. A clear division of roles, proper
organization of stops, and the development of emergency plans contribute
to improved operational safety and reduced risk of human error.
Equally important is the planning
of loading and load securing, which includes the selection of securing
devices, load marking, and stability control [21], [45]. A properly prepared loading
process helps prevent load displacement during transport, thereby reducing the
risk of accidents and material damage.
A comprehensive approach to planning
also affects the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of transport
safety. Route and schedule optimization reduces operating costs and limits
noise and exhaust emissions. At the same time, proper transport organization
increases the awareness of road users and minimizes the risk of accidents
involving third parties [4], [32].
The complexity of the organizational
and safety-related processes accompanying this type of operation, which
requires a systems approach, is also an important issue. The scale of technical
and logistics involvement means that transport safety depends not only on the
selection of appropriate vehicles but also on the coordination of activities
among multiple entities, proper route planning, and risk assessment and
monitoring at every stage of the operation [28]. The complexity of this process
results from the need to consider technical, legal, and organizational
requirements, as well as economic and environmental aspects. Figure 3
schematically presents the structure of a road safety analysis for oversize
transport, taking into account the interdependencies among the participants in
the transport process, the analyzed stages of
transport organization, and the factors influencing the safety level of the
operation.
A key element of ensuring safety is
the identification and assessment of risks at individual stages, from preparing
documentation and obtaining permits, through road infrastructure analysis, to
route monitoring and emergency response. Modern decision-support systems based
on GPS technologies, sensors, and integrated databases enable ongoing
monitoring of transport execution and optimization of actions in the event of
deviations from the plan.
The safety of oversize transport is
multidimensional. Maintaining it requires coordination among carriers, road
authorities, police and other authorized services, and other participants in
the process. Only consistent management of information, responsibility, and
communication among entities can mitigate technical, organizational, and
environmental risks, thereby increasing the efficiency and reliability of the
entire transport system.
2.2. Selection of means of transport
Road transport of oversize loads
uses specialized vehicles with reinforced structures, adapted to carry high
masses and to operate with low-loader or modular trailers. The primary group
consists of tractor units coupled to special semi-trailers by means of a fifth
wheel and kingpin, as well as ballast tractors designed to tow heavy multi-axle
trailers and support vehicle combinations on gradients. Hybrid tractor units,
combining the functions of both types, are also increasingly used. Low-loader
and modular trailers are another key element of the transport system. Owing to
their lowered loading platform, they enable the transport of large and heavy
loads. Depending on the characteristics of the load, various trailer types are
used, including low-loader semi-trailers, extendable trailers, low-bed
trailers, heavy-duty trailers, tank trailers, and modular trailers [10].
Fig. 3. Safety analysis framework for oversize
road transport operations
Source: own elaboration
In road transport of oversize loads,
the implementation of the process using appropriate transport equipment is
fundamental. Due to its specific physical characteristics, each oversize load
requires an individual approach to the selection of dedicated tractor units and
trailers or to their appropriate adaptation. Polish legislation strictly
defines permissible axle loads on road pavements and maximum vehicle
dimensions. Therefore, when transporting heavy loads, the number of axles is a
fundamental element of vehicle configuration, as it ensures that the generated
loads remain within the specified limits.
The adaptation of a vehicle’s
loading platform to the requirements of the transported cargo constitutes one
of the key aspects in the design of low-bed trailers[19]. Parameters such as weight,
external dimensions, center of gravity location, and
cargo securing method determine both the geometry of the transport platform and
the configuration of the axles and structural components of the trailer. The
specific nature of oversized cargo also requires the use of appropriately
selected structural materials and securing systems to ensure transport safety.
3. RISK IN OVERSIZE ROAD TRANSPORT: A
LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. General remarks
In general
terms, risk in road transport is defined as the relationship between the
frequency of events and the number of people exposed to a specific level of
harm in a given population, resulting from the occurrence of specific hazards [6], [16]. According
to [29], risk is
the product of the probability of a hazard-generating event, such as a road
accident involving a heavy goods vehicle carrying a load, and the magnitude of
losses resulting from its consequences. Study [38] also
defines risk as the frequency of accidents and incidents leading to harm and
the severity of that harm, extended by a factor representing the severity of
the adverse event. On this basis, risk R may be expressed as follows [14], [46]:
where:
R – risk level,
P – probability of
occurrence of an adverse event during transport,
S – measure of consequences, including damage to cargo, transport equipment,
loss of health, life, or environmental damage.
According to
[11], [15], the term
“risk management” refers to the process of identifying, analyzing,
and controlling risk factors that may affect the course and safety of ongoing
processes. Risk assessment is an important element of risk management, as it
enables the identification of potential hazards and the implementation of
measures aimed at reducing the likelihood of adverse events. In the case of
oversize road transport, this is particularly important due to the high
complexity of transport organization and the need to ensure the safety of road
users and transport infrastructure.
Risk
management is also defined as a process encompassing the preparation,
assessment, and, where necessary, implementation of appropriate strategies
aimed at more effective control, monitoring, and mitigation of both routine and
exceptional risks in the supply chain [1]. In turn,
occupational risk analysis [23], in the
context of road incidents, considers the probability of a collision or accident
and its possible consequences, ranging from minor incidents to serious road
accidents that may result in loss of life.
The
literature on oversize transport emphasizes that the specific characteristics
of these operations generate specific hazards and challenges related to risk
identification, analysis, and reduction. The authors of [34] indicate
that, in the case of oversize loads, the transport process must account for an
increased number of entities and requirements, including escort personnel,
specialized equipment, and permits, as well as a higher level of uncertainty
regarding execution conditions. Reference [12] emphasizes
that the transport of oversize loads requires a separate permitting procedure
and is subject to sanctions in the event of non-compliance with regulations,
which constitutes an additional operational risk factor.
In [25], the
authors note that risk analysis in oversize road transport remains an
insufficiently developed research area. They emphasize the lack of sufficient
statistical data on accidents and adverse events, as well as the absence of
uniform and standardized risk assessment methods for this type of transport. In
response to these limitations, they propose a risk assessment model based on
the use of a risk matrix that takes into account both transport network
parameters, such as infrastructure condition, geometric constraints, and route
capacity, and the characteristics of the transported load, including mass,
dimensions, and susceptibility to damage. This model is intended to facilitate
the identification of key hazards and determine the risk level associated with
a specific oversize transport operation.
The
literature analysis indicates that risk assessment can be conducted using
appropriate methods, such as FMEA [20] or a risk
matrix [27]. If the
risk level is too high, mitigation measures are implemented, including route
changes, the use of safety measures, and modification of load securing. If the
risk is acceptable or cannot be further reduced, the transport operation is
commenced [4].
3.2. Types of risk
As
previously mentioned, a key stage in risk analysis and assessment is the
identification of potential adverse events. In oversize transport, these events
may be technical, organizational, social, or environmental in nature. Figure 4
presents an example of risks identified during oversize road transport.
The authors
of [31] identified
15 typical risks based on an analysis of the transport of wind turbine
components. The most important risks included the risk of a road accident,
discrepancies between the actual load parameters and the documentation,
imprecise route planning, and delays in obtaining permits.
Infrastructure-related
factors constitute a key element of risk analysis in oversize transport [37]. It is
clearly indicated that the geometric limitations of roads, bridges, and
intersections, as well as insufficient technical parameters of urban
infrastructure, may lead to hazardous situations and necessitate route changes
during the transport operation. This risk is particularly evident in urban
areas, where maneuvering space is limited and the
impact on the surroundings, such as pedestrian traffic and public transport, is
significantly greater.
Furthermore,
study [3] discusses
the organizational and technical conditions for the transport of oversize
loads, taking into account documentation requirements, escort services, and
equipment specifications. Although the study is not strictly devoted to risk
analysis, it provides important context regarding the factors that determine
risk in this type of transport.
The study
presented in [40] proposes a
model for assessing risk associated with the transport of oversize loads in the
military sector. The publication analyzes the
specific characteristics of this type of transport and identifies key risk
factors affecting the safety of transport operations. The factors with the
greatest impact on risk include load and transport equipment parameters, the
road network, transport conditions, and preparation of the transport operation.
Publication [26] discusses
issues related to the transport of oversize loads, using military equipment as
an example. The authors identify potential hazards arising from such transport
and present a conceptual model for assessing the associated risk.
3.3. Risk assessment methods and tools
Due to the
scale of hazards that may occur as a result of collisions or accidents during
the transport of oversize loads, risk in this type of transport is increasingly
analyzed by researchers [18], [44]. Issues
related to risk assessment methods are discussed in both national and
international literature. In general, these methods are divided into three main
groups: qualitative, quantitative, and semi-quantitative. For example, in [43], fault tree
analysis and Monte Carlo simulation were applied, which enabled a comprehensive
assessment of transport system reliability and the identification of its
weakest links. In [50], the
relationship between risks occurring in individual subsystems and reliability
costs was presented using an advanced allocation method based on fuzzy logic.
In [35] co-authors
indicate that risk analysis in road cargo transportation includes the
identification of hazards related to the vehicle, transported cargo, human
factors, and environmental conditions. The publication also emphasizes that
risk assessment methods such as the HAZOP method (Hazard and Operability Study)
can support the identification of potential hazards and the evaluation of
transport operation safety.
It should be
emphasized that the choice of a risk assessment method largely depends on the
type of transport and the specific characteristics of the transported load or
passengers. For example, in [9], which
concerns rolling stock demand planning in a railway company, Monte Carlo
simulation was used. The authors assigned specific methods to the
organization’s level of experience:
·
checklists – for entities entering the
transport market,
·
FMEA, HAZOP, and COSO II – for organizations
with at least two years of experience,
·
FTA (Fault Tree Analysis) – for large carriers
and infrastructure managers with extensive event data.
Fig. 4. Types of risk in road transport of
oversize loads
Source: own elaboration based on [25]
More
broadly, the FMEA method has been used to select risk mitigation strategies in
road transport. The results presented in [22] indicate
that managers should consider both the severity of hazards and available
financial resources when developing risk mitigation strategies. The authors
also emphasize that combining expert opinion with cost-benefit analysis can
lead to reliable risk assessment results. Another study [41] provides a
clear classification of FTA methods, focused on practical risk analyses, while [49] presents a
review and development of the FTA method, demonstrating its broad application
potential in the analysis of the safety and reliability of technical systems.
Reference [48] presents
the use of Markov chains for risk assessment in maritime transport. The study
enabled the determination of how the system state changes over time and at what
point a low-probability incident may escalate into a high-risk event.
In addition
to sector-specific analyses, it is also necessary to refer to international
risk management standards. One of the key documents in this area is ISO
31000:2018 [13], which
contains principles and guidelines that can be implemented in organizations. It
specifies recommended methods and techniques for selected stages of the risk
management process, such as risk identification, risk analysis, risk
evaluation, risk treatment, monitoring, review, and reporting. The choice of
method should depend on the nature of the analyzed
object and the purpose of the study.
The second
important document in this area is IEC 31010:2019 [14], which
expands and complements ISO 31000. It describes approximately 40 risk
assessment techniques, including FMEA, FTA, Monte Carlo simulation, and SWOT
analysis, and indicates criteria for their selection depending on the specific
characteristics of the organization and the analyzed
problem. This standard supports decision-making by increasing risk awareness,
safety, and operational efficiency. The 2019 update introduced new techniques
adapted to contemporary technological and business conditions, making IEC
31010:2019 an important tool supporting the effective identification and
mitigation of hazards. Figure 5 presents a set of risk assessment methods used
in broadly understood road transport.
4. RISK
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE USING FMEA
4.1. General assumptions
Risk assessment in transport
processes requires a structured approach to hazard identification and to
determining their impact on the course of operations. It is assumed that, due
to the complexity of logistics processes and the interdependence of numerous
technical, organizational, and operational factors, risk analysis should be
systems-based and should cover all key stages of the transport process. In the
case of oversize road transport, this results from the above-standard
dimensions of loads, specific technical requirements, infrastructure
constraints, and the need to obtain numerous permits [21], [24].
Effective risk management requires a
systematic approach that includes hazard identification, risk analysis, and the
implementation of measures aimed at reducing the likelihood and consequences of
adverse events [42]. In practice, the risk assessment
process is based on the identification of potential adverse events,
determination of their causes, and analysis of possible consequences for the
safety, reliability, and continuity of operations. An important element of the
study is the identification of areas requiring risk reduction measures and
support for the decision-making process.
Fig. 5. Risk assessment methods applicable to
road transport of oversize loads
Source: own elaboration based on [17]
As shown in
Figure 6, risk assessment is performed at each stage of transport planning. The
process begins with collecting data on the order, including the type and
parameters of the load, loading and unloading locations, possible load
division, transportability, and special requirements. On this basis, transport
parameters are planned, including the selection of transport equipment, loading
operations, documentation, route, costs, and time. Risk sources, such as
infrastructure constraints, weather conditions, technical risks, human error,
and traffic disruptions, are then identified.
FMEA-based
risk analysis takes into account both technical factors related to the
operation of transport equipment and infrastructure, as well as organizational,
operational, and environmental aspects. It is also assumed that the risk
assessment process is conducted using expert knowledge and practical experience
related to the organization and execution of transport operations. Figure 6 presents an algorithm for
risk assessment in the organization of oversize road transport using the FMEA
method.
4.2. Risk assessment algorithm for oversize
road transport
To
demonstrate in practical terms the decision-support process for planning and
organizing oversize road transport, the FMEA method, Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis, was used. This method enables the systematic identification of
potential failure modes and the analysis of their causes and effects on the
process or system under investigation. As part of the analysis, three basic
parameters are determined for each identified hazard:
Fig. 6. Risk assessment procedure for the organization of oversize road
transport
Source: own elaboration based on [25]
Each parameter is rated on a scale from 1 to 10,
with higher values indicating a higher risk level. On the basis of these
ratings, the Risk Priority Number, RPN, is calculated as the product of the
three factors:
The higher the RPN value, the higher the
priority assigned to a given hazard and the greater the need for corrective
action. In practice, events with an RPN exceeding a predetermined threshold,
for example 150, are considered critical and require detailed analysis and
immediate intervention [20]. The
strengths of the FMEA method include its systematic character, transparency,
and ability to quantify the risk level at individual stages of transport. This
method enables the identification of potential failure modes, that is, adverse
events, as well as the determination of their effects, probability of
occurrence, and detectability prior to occurrence. This makes it possible to
assign a value to the Risk Priority Number (RPN), and thereby establish a
hierarchy of hazards and identify areas requiring preventive action. Figure 7 presents a flowchart of the FMEA method.
Fig. 7. Flowchart of the FMEA procedure for risk analysis in oversize
road transport
Source: own elaboration
5. PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF RISK
ASSESSMENT
5.1. Assumptions – load and transport equipment parameters
To verify in practical terms the feasibility of using the FMEA method to
support decision-making in the organization of oversize road transport, a case
study was developed, including a risk analysis for the transport of a
power transformer. It was assumed that the load was transported from a
production plant in Gliwice to a power substation in Opole. This operation was
classified as oversize road transport because the vehicle combination exceeded
the permissible parameters specified in the Polish Road Traffic Act,
Journal of Laws of 2022, item 988 [33]. Due to the exceedance of
permissible dimensional and mass parameters, the transport operation required a
Category V permit and escort services. Table 1 summarizes the technical
parameters of the sample load.
Tab. 1
Technical data of the sample oversize load
|
No. |
Parameter |
Value |
|
1. |
Length of the
oversize load [m] |
8,20 |
|
2. |
Height of the
oversize load [m] |
3,60 |
|
3. |
Width of the
oversize load [m] |
3,40 |
|
4. |
Total mass of the
oversize load [kg] |
65 000 |
Source: own elaboration
In the case study, a mixed route was used, combining sections of
motorway and lower-class roads. The main part of the transport operation was
carried out on the A4 motorway, while access to the loading point in Gliwice
and the final section leading to the power substation in Opole were carried out
via voivodeship and district roads. This solution reflects the typical
structure of oversize transport operations in Poland. The transport was carried
out using a vehicle combination consisting of:
·
a four-axle tractor unit adapted to the transport of
oversize loads,
·
a 10-axle modular low-bed semi-trailer, ensuring
uniform distribution of axle loads on the road surface and maintaining the
stability of the vehicle combination,
·
two escort vehicles, as required by regulations,
including one operating in radio communication with the police patrol on
critical sections.
The study was conducted in cooperation with a transport company
specializing in oversize transport. The FMEA risk assessment team included a
transport manager, a route engineer, a driver and co-driver, a
load-securing specialist, an occupational health and safety expert, and a
representative of the road authority.
The analysis used load and vehicle documentation, route maps (taking
into account the load-bearing capacity of bridges and vertical clearance
limits), company operational data, applicable regulations, and cost
information. Risk assessment was performed by experts on a 1–10 scale for three
criteria: S (severity of consequences), O (occurrence), and D
(detection). Where possible, simple quantitative measures were also used, such
as the number of bridge structures or the length of sections with limited
load-bearing capacity.
5.2. Identification of Risk Areas
Section 3.2 presents a general classification of risks occurring in road
transport of oversize loads, including logistics and operational risks,
technical risks, environmental risks, legal risks, and economic risks, as shown
in Fig. 5. Based on this structure, as well as on practical experience gained
in cooperation with a company providing oversize transport services, a detailed
identification of specific risk factors, understood as failure modes,
was conducted.
Hazard identification was conducted in consultation with a team of
experts, including the transport manager, the route engineer, escort personnel,
a load-securing specialist, and an occupational health and safety expert.
The company’s practical knowledge was used, including experience from previous
transport operations, road infrastructure data, and applicable regulations
concerning oversize transport.
Based on the conducted analyses, the most significant risk factors that
may arise during the planning, preparation, and execution of the oversize
transport of a power transformer on the Gliwice-Opole route were identified.
The identified factors reflect actual operational, technical, and
organizational hazards, and their characteristics are presented in Table 2.
Tab. 2
Key risk factors in
oversize road transport
|
No. |
Identified risk factor |
|
1. |
Incorrect or
incomplete transport documentation |
|
2. |
Incorrect route
selection or route planning |
|
3. |
Problems related to
road infrastructure |
|
4. |
Improper load securing |
|
5. |
Failure of the
vehicle or trailer |
|
6. |
Error by escort
personnel or lack of convoy coordination |
|
7. |
Collision with infrastructure
obstacles |
|
8. |
Adverse weather conditions |
|
9. |
Traffic congestion or
roadworks along the route |
|
10. |
Disruptions affecting
the local community |
|
11. |
Non-compliance with
transport regulations |
|
12. |
Unplanned costs and
organizational delays |
Source: own elaboration
5.3. Decision-making procedure
After
identifying the key hazards occurring in the transport of oversize loads, it is
necessary to analyze their impact on the safety and
course of the transport operation. The aim of this stage of the study is to
determine which of the identified risk factors pose the greatest threat to the
proper execution of the transport operation and to identify areas requiring
preventive or organizational measures.
The analysis
is conducted using the FMEA method, which involves the assessment of three
parameters describing the nature of each hazard: severity of consequences S,
occurrence O, and detection D. These parameters are assessed
through expert consultation within a team composed of representatives of the
transport company and the authors of the study. Ratings are assigned on a scale
from 1 to 10, in accordance with the adopted qualitative criteria.
The obtained
results provide the basis for calculating the RPN, which enables the
hierarchy of individual hazards to be determined. Table 3 summarizes the
results of the analysis.
As the results indicate (Table 3),
the highest Risk Priority Number values are associated with technical and
operational hazards. The most significant risks include improper load securing
(RPN = 378), adverse weather conditions (RPN = 360), tractor unit or trailer
failure (RPN = 315), and incorrect route selection or route planning (RPN =
288). These risk factors have a direct impact on transport safety and the
continuity of transport operations; therefore, they require priority treatment
in the risk management process. The chart below presents a graphical summary of
the results. Figure 8 presents a graphical summary of the results obtained.
Tab. 3
Summary of FMEA
analysis results
|
No. |
Risk factor |
Consequences |
S |
O |
D |
RPN |
|
1 |
Improper load securing |
Load displacement, loss of stability, damage to the
load |
9 |
6 |
7 |
378 |
|
2 |
Adverse weather conditions |
Reduced stability, need to interrupt the transport
operation |
5 |
8 |
9 |
360 |
|
3 |
Tractor unit or trailer failure |
Stoppage, delay, risk of accident |
5 |
7 |
9 |
315 |
|
4 |
Incorrect route selection or route planning |
Collision with infrastructure elements, extended
transport time |
6 |
6 |
8 |
288 |
|
5 |
Error by escort personnel or lack of convoy
coordination |
Incorrect maneuvers, collisions |
5 |
6 |
8 |
240 |
|
6 |
Problems related to road infrastructure |
Difficult passage, damage to the vehicle or load |
5 |
6 |
7 |
210 |
|
7 |
Traffic congestion or roadworks along the route |
Delay, need for a detour |
4 |
7 |
7 |
196 |
|
8 |
Collision with infrastructure
obstacles |
Damage to the load or infrastructure |
9 |
3 |
5 |
135 |
|
9 |
Unplanned costs and organizational delays |
Increased costs, reduced profitability |
3 |
6 |
4 |
72 |
|
10 |
Incorrect or incomplete transport documentation |
Transport suspension, delay, administrative
sanctions |
3 |
5 |
4 |
60 |
|
11 |
Disruptions affecting the local community |
Complaints, conflicts, traffic restrictions |
2 |
8 |
2 |
32 |
|
12 |
Non-compliance with transport regulations |
Fines, vehicle detention |
4 |
3 |
2 |
24 |
Source: own elaboration
Analysis of the partial values S, O,
and D shows that the dominant factor increasing the risk level is the low
detectability of potential hazards before their occurrence. This applies
particularly to situations related to vehicle failures, adverse weather
conditions, or operational errors during escorting. This indicates the need to
implement system-based solutions for monitoring the technical condition of
vehicles, ongoing supervision of route conditions, and more effective
communication within the transport convoy.
On the other hand, risks with lower
RPN values, such as unplanned costs and organizational delays (RPN = 72),
incomplete transport documentation (RPN = 60), or disruptions affecting the
local community (RPN = 32), have a limited impact on transport safety but may
affect its economic efficiency and the company’s image.
Fig. 8. Graphical presentation of the obtained
results
Source: own elaboration
5.4. Corrective and preventive measures
Corrective and preventive measures
are an important element of the risk management process in the transport of
oversize loads. Their aim is to reduce the likelihood of hazards and minimize
their potential consequences if they occur. These measures may include
organizational, technical, and procedural solutions aimed at eliminating
sources of risk during the planning and preparation stages of transport.
Corrective measures, in turn, are intended to restore the stability of the
transport process after an adverse event and to prevent its recurrence. Table 4
presents proposed preventive and corrective measures for risk factors with the
highest RPN values, as well as an assessment of their expected effectiveness.
Tab. 4
Preventive and corrective measures for selected
risk factors
|
No. |
Risk factor |
Preventive measures |
Corrective measures |
|
1 |
Improper load securing |
Introduction
of certified load-securing systems, mandatory training in load securing, use
of pre-departure checklists, and additional inspection by the transport
manager |
Stopping
the transport operation and re-securing the load, analyzing
the causes of the error, and retraining loading personnel |
|
2 |
Adverse weather conditions |
Continuous
monitoring of weather forecasts and GIS systems, flexible scheduling of
transport dates, and development of emergency procedures for adverse
conditions, such as strong winds or precipitation |
Temporary
suspension of the transport operation, securing the load and vehicle, route
adjustment, or continuation of the transport after the hazard has passed |
|
3 |
Tractor
unit or trailer failure |
Regular
technical inspections, implementation of a preventive maintenance plan,
replacement of consumables before the planned transport operation, and
inspection of tires, braking systems, and hydraulic systems |
Securing
the incident site, calling a mobile repair service, using a replacement
vehicle, documenting the incident, and analyzing
its causes |
Source: own elaboration
6.
CONCLUSIONS
The technical, organizational, and
legal complexity of oversize road transport requires the use of structured
planning and decision-support methods. Managing the transport process for
oversize loads requires the integration of activities in the areas of transport
engineering, logistics, and road safety. Particular attention should be paid to
the importance of route planning, the selection of transport equipment, and
operational coordination, as these factors directly affect the safety and
efficiency of the entire transport operation.
The identification of risk factors
made it possible to determine the key hazards affecting the safety of transport
operations. The results clearly indicate that the highest RPN values were
obtained for technical and operational hazards, including improper load
securing, adverse weather conditions, and tractor unit or trailer failures. The
results confirm that these factors constitute the most significant sources of
uncertainty in the transport process and should be treated as priorities in
safety management.
The study also proposes a set of
preventive and corrective measures whose implementation may significantly
reduce operational risk. The use of solutions such as certified load-securing
systems, inspection procedures, ongoing technical monitoring of vehicles, and
the integration of weather data into route planning may increase the resilience
of the transport system to adverse events. Reassessment of risk after the
implementation of corrective measures may indicate a noticeable reduction in
the RPN value, thereby confirming the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
The results indicate the feasibility
of adapting the FMEA method to real operating conditions, both in transport
companies and in road administration units. In the longer term, the development
of integrated decision-support systems based on risk analysis and digital
technologies, such as GIS, IoT, and simulation tools, may contribute to
improving the safety and efficiency of oversize transport in Poland and
internationally.
Funding
This paper was co-financed under the
research grant of the Warsaw University of Technology supporting the scientific
activity in the discipline of Civil Engineering, Geodesy and Transport.
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Received 13.11.2025; accepted in
revised form 12.04.2026
Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport is licensed
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[1] Faculty of Transport, Warsaw
University of Technology, Koszykowa 75 Street, 00-662
Warsaw, Poland. Email: michal.lasota@pw.edu.pl. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3090-4815
[2] Faculty of Transport, Warsaw
University of Technology, Koszykowa 75 Street, 00-662
Warsaw, Poland. Email: marianna.jacyna@pw.edu.pl. ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7582-4536