Article citation information:
Akanmu, A.A.,
Salisu, U.O. The effects of environmental peculiarities on transportation
infrastructure performance in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria: residents' experiences. Scientific Journal of Silesian
University of Technology. Series Transport. 2024, 122, 5-20.
ISSN: 0209-3324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20858/sjsutst.2024.122.1.
Ayobami Ademola AKANMU[1], Umar Obafemi SALISU[2]
THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PECULIARITIES ON TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE PERFORMANCE IN LAGOS METROPOLIS, NIGERIA: RESIDENTS' EXPERIENCES
Summary. Efficient
transportation infrastructure is pivotal for the seamless functioning of global
cities, with coastal cities facing unique challenges due to environmental
peculiarities. This study delves into how Lagos' environmental peculiarities
impact transportation infrastructure performance, shedding light on both
positive and negative implications. A comprehensive survey involving 1284 residents
within Lagos Metropolis was conducted using multistage sampling techniques. A
combination of descriptive (percentage and mean-weighted analysis) and
inferential (Fisher’s exact test and Phi Cramer's V Test) statistics was
adopted for data analysis. Major findings revealed that the environmental
peculiarities in Lagos foster the use of multimodal infrastructure options and
concurrently exert adverse effects on various facets of transportation
infrastructure performance, including travel cost, commuting time, fare
charges, wear and tear of infrastructure, and the overall cost of maintenance
and repairs. The results of the Fisher’s exact test underscore the
undeniable impact of Lagos' environmental peculiarities on transportation
infrastructure performance (p = 0.000 < 0.05). This study concludes that
high water tables, as a representative environmental peculiarity, substantially
influence transportation infrastructure performance, shaping the mobility needs
of residents. In light of these findings, the study advocates for the full
implementation of sustainable infrastructure solutions. Recommendations include
establishing robust drainage systems, incorporating corrosion-resistant
materials, and adopting innovative technologies to mitigate the repercussions
of rising sea levels on critical transportation infrastructure, enhancing its
resilience in the face of environmental challenges.
Keywords: environmental
peculiarities, Lagos Metropolis, residents’ perception, transport
externalities, transportation infrastructure performance
1.
INTRODUCTION
Transportation
infrastructure remains a critical component for the effective functioning of
cities globally and the performance of transportation infrastructure, no doubt,
has a direct impact on the quality of life, economic development, and
environmental sustainability of these cities. However, the performance of
transportation infrastructure is often constrained by varying degree of
environmental peculiarities such as extreme weather events, air pollution,
severe weather events (like hurricanes, typhoons, and floods) natural disaster
such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and wildfires [14, 22]. The environmental
peculiarities which various across global settlements and cities have
long-lasting effects on transportation infrastructure, leading to service
interruptions and longer travel times in human settlements.
In recent years, the
environmental peculiarities, especially of coastal cities, have become an
increasingly important topic of discussion. Environmental peculiarities such as
extreme weather events, natural disasters, climate change and air pollution
according to 10 and 25, have significant effects on transportation
infrastructure performance in many cities of the world, while transportation infrastructure
is usually vulnerable to these environmental peculiarities, leading to
disruptions in transportation services, maintenance costs and reduced
productivity. Furthermore, natural
disasters such as earthquakes and floods also have significant effects on
transportation infrastructure performance in global cities. For instance, the
2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan caused damage to transportation
infrastructure, leading to disruptions in rail and road services [10]. Climate
change has also been identified as a significant environmental peculiarity that
affects transportation infrastructure performance in global cities. Rising sea
levels and flooding caused by climate change can cause significant damage to
transportation infrastructure, leading to disruptions in transportation
services [19]. Air pollution is another environmental peculiarity that has
significant effects on transportation infrastructure performance in global
cities and, as such, influences the health of commuters, leading to increased
healthcare costs and reduced productivity.
Lagos is known for
its unique environmental challenges and transportation infrastructure issues.
In other words, the city's rapid urbanization, combined with inadequate
infrastructure and poor waste management, has led to various environmental
problems, such as air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and flooding
resulting in reduced efficiency and increased travel time for commuters [28].
The environmental peculiarities in Lagos, such as intense rainfall, high
groundwater table, and tidal variations, have significantly impacted the
quality and durability of transportation infrastructure and the challenges
posed by these peculiarities include traffic congestion, reduced road safety,
and increased transportation costs, among others.
Furthermore, Lagos is
surrounded by water bodies, such as the Lagos Lagoon, the Atlantic Ocean, and
various other waterways, which made the city to be prone to high level of water
table. These environmental factors, coupled with the city's low-lying terrain,
make Lagos vulnerable to flooding and other environmental challenges that
affect the performance of the transportation systems [1]. Accordingly, Ref. [3] opine that the
frequent flooding caused by the city's water bodies and sea level rise has led
to road closures, traffic congestion, and delays in commuting, while the high
salinity levels in the water bodies have been found to cause significant damage
to bridges and other infrastructure, leading to costly repairs and maintenance.
The experiences of residents also reflect the challenges posed by these
environmental peculiarities on transportation systems operational performance.
Residents report frequent traffic congestion and delays due to poor road
conditions and flooding, making commuting difficult and time-consuming.
Being the commercial,
financial and industrial nerve centre of Nigeria and also known for its aquatic
splendor, bustling population, diverse economy, and congested transportation
system, the Lagos's unique environmental peculiarities, such as flooding and
air pollution, coupled with poor transportation infrastructure, have resulted
in significant challenges not only for policymakers, urban planners, traffic
planners, but also for residents and businesses particularly in the face of its
rapid population growth and the increasing demands of socio-economic
activities. It is on this basis that this study examines the residents’
experiences of the transportation infrastructure performance in the midst of
prevailing environmental peculiarities in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Researchers
have examined diverse transportation issues at international and national scale
over the years due to the crucial role that the sector plays in the economic,
social, and environmental development of human settlements and socio-spatial
interactions. In fact, the relationship between environmental peculiarities and
transportation infrastructure performance is critical to the sustainable
development of global cities [17]. However, the performance of transportation
infrastructure is affected by various environmental peculiarities such as
weather conditions, as extreme weather events, sea-level rise, geological
characteristics, ecological factors and air pollution, which are becoming
increasingly prevalent due to global climate change. Therefore, the impact of
environmental peculiarities, such as extreme weather events, sea-level rise,
air pollution, and other natural phenomena, on transportation infrastructure
performance in global cities is an area of growing concern in recent times.
The
impact of these environmental factors can lead to disruptions in transportation
systems, resulting in economic losses, reduced accessibility, and increased
travel time. This highlights the need for cities to consider the effects of
environmental peculiarities when planning and designing transportation
infrastructure. Several studies have examined the impact of environmental
peculiarities on transportation infrastructure in global cities. For instance,
a study by Ref. [9] investigated the impact of typhoons on the performance of
the Hong Kong transportation system, finding that severe typhoons can cause
significant disruptions, leading to economic losses and reduced accessibility.
Another study by Ref. [30] examined the impact of air pollution on transportation
infrastructure in Beijing, finding that high levels of pollution can lead to
increased travel time and reduced accessibility, particularly for vulnerable
populations.
Climate
change and extreme weather events, including hurricanes, floods, and wildfires,
pose significant challenges to transportation infrastructure. These events can
damage infrastructure, disrupt services, and result in economic losses. For
example, Hurricane Sandy in 2012 caused extensive damage to New York City's
transportation infrastructure, leading to disruptions in subway and commuter
rail services, as well as damage to tunnels and bridges [18]. Air pollution is
another environmental factor that affects transportation infrastructure
performance. Poor air quality can impact the health of commuters, reduce the
efficiency of transportation systems, and increase maintenance expenses. A
study by the American Lung Association found that air pollution costs the U.S.
economy $131 billion annually in lost productivity and healthcare expenses [6].
The
impact of geological characteristics on transportation infrastructure
performance has been extensively studied in geotechnical engineering research.
For instance, Ref. [13] and [29] opined that the geological characteristics
such as soil conditions and topography can also impact transportation
infrastructure performance in which soft soils can cause settlements and
subsidence, leading to pavement cracking and deformation, while topography can
also present challenges for transportation infrastructure development,
particularly in mountainous regions where steep slopes and narrow valleys can
limit the options for road and railway alignments. Furthermore, ecological
factors, such as vegetation and wildlife, can also affect transportation infrastructure
performance. Trees and shrubs growing near roads and railways can interfere
with overhead lines, block visibility, and damage structures. Wildlife, such as
deer and elk, can pose a risk to drivers on highways, causing accidents and
fatalities. The impact of ecological factors on transportation infrastructure
performance has been studied in the context of environmental impact assessments
and wildlife management plans [25, 31].
Cities
are responding to the challenges posed by environmental peculiarities by
adopting measures to enhance the resilience of transportation infrastructure.
For example, New York City has developed a comprehensive climate resiliency
plan that includes initiatives to protect transportation infrastructure from
climate risks [20]. Similarly, Amsterdam has developed a climate adaptation
strategy that includes measures to protect transportation infrastructure from
sea-level rise and flooding [12]. Similarly, a study by [11] examined the
impacts of extreme weather events on the transportation infrastructure of
Taipei City, Taiwan. The study found that extreme weather events, such as
typhoons and heavy rainfall, could cause significant damage to the city's transportation
infrastructure, resulting in traffic congestion and delays. Moreover, Ref. [32]
has shown that transportation infrastructure is vulnerable to extreme weather
events, which can cause damage to roads, bridges and tunnels, leading to
disruptions in transportation services, while Ref. [15] observed that the 2012
Hurricane Sandy caused widespread damage to transportation infrastructure in
New York City, leading to disruptions in subway and rail services. Research
studies have shown that air pollution can cause damage to transportation
infrastructure such as bridges and tunnels, leading to maintenance expenses and
disruptions in transportation services [8]. However, Ref. [16] advocated for
improved investment in sustainable transportation infrastructure can lead to
economic benefits such as increased productivity and reduced healthcare costs
and as such, cities with strong public transport systems tend to have lower
carbon emissions and better air quality compared to those with less efficient
systems.
Several
scholars in Nigeria have also examined environmental peculiarities and its
implications on Nigerian transportation infrastructure performance.
Specifically, Lagos, Nigeria however, is one of the fastest-growing cities in
Africa is faced with numerous environmental challenges that affect
transportation infrastructure performance with spread adverse effects on the
residents [4]. For instance, flooding is one of the major environmental
peculiarities that influences transportation infrastructure performance in
Lagos, Nigeria, with many roads becoming flooded during the rainy season,
leading to traffic congestion, delays, and damage to roads and bridges. The
study by Ref. [22] found that flooding in Lagos results in the closure of many
roads and bridges, which affects the movement of people and goods, aside from
damaging the road pavement, causing potholes and making the road surface
uneven, which leads to accidents and damages to vehicles. Furthermore, the
rapid growth in the population and economy of Lagos has led to an increase in
the number of vehicles on the road, which has resulted in severe traffic
congestion.
Accordingly,
Ref. [23] found that traffic congestion in Lagos leads to delays and increased
travel time, which impacts the productivity of people and the economy of the
city in addition to increasing air pollution, which affects the health of the
residents of Lagos. Regarding poor drainage, 23 found that poor drainage
systems in Lagos led to the accumulation of water on roads, which modifies the
movement of vehicles, causes accidents and leads to soil erosion, which impacts
the stability of bridges and the durability of roads. Like other coastal cities
in the world, the study by [7] found that climate change leads to sea-level
rise, which affects the stability of bridges and the durability of roads in
Lagos, Nigeria, in addition to an increase in the frequency and intensity of
rainfall, which leads to flooding and damages to roads and bridges. Based on
the foregoing, previous research and literature have only addressed other
environmental issues, such as transportation systems and infrastructure,
leaving behind, an empirical vacuum on residents’ experiences of the
impact of environmental peculiarities, particularly salinity, high water volume,
and water table, on transportation infrastructure performance; thus, the need
for this study.
3.
STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1.
Study area
Lagos Metropolis is located
within the geographical area of Lagos State in the Southwestern part of
Nigeria, comprising an area of 1,178.28 square kilometers and is bounded in the
North by Ogun State, in the East by the Lagoon, in the West by Badagry Local
Government and in the South by the Atlantic Ocean. It is located on 445.05 mile
north of the equator and longitude 3.410 E and latitude 6.470 N. The Metropolis
comprises 16 Local Government Areas out of the 20 Local Government Areas that
make up Lagos State [4]. Lagos, Nigeria's economic capital, is notorious for
its traffic congestion and inadequate transportation infrastructure spreading
across roadways, waterways, airways, railways etc. and complex transportation operations
which is heavily influenced by unprecedented population density, urban land use
activities and environmental characteristics of Lagos Island and Lagos
Mainland.
3.2. Methodology
A cross-sectional survey research design was employed to investigate
residents' experiences regarding the impact of environmental peculiarities on
transportation performance in Lagos. Both primary and secondary data were
sourced and utilized for this study. The primary data collection involved a
questionnaire survey instrument complemented by field observation. The
questionnaire was administered to 1284 residents, representing a 0.0001% sample
frame of the projected 2021 population of 12,030,141 in Lagos Metropolis. Field
observation utilized water-table and soil salinity test instruments to
determine the water-table level and soil salinity in the two regional
categories of Lagos Metropolis, namely Mainland and Island.
Fig. 1.
Lagos Metropolis in the Context of Nigeria and Africa
A probability sampling technique, comprising multistage sampling
techniques involving stratified, simple random, and systematic sampling, was
adopted in selecting residents, specifically household heads or their
representatives across both Mainland and Island regions of Lagos Metropolis.
Stratified sampling divided Lagos Metropolis into two major clusters of Lagos Mainland
and Lagos Island regions based on government approved political wards, followed
by a simple random sampling technique to select 50% of the political wards (minor
clusters) in each region. Subsequently, a systematic sampling technique was
used to select every tenth residential building after random selection of the
first building in each minor clusters, where the household head or
representative became the sample unit. Representatives aged 18 and above,
irrespective of their status, participated in the study.
Simultaneously, water-table and soil salinity tests were conducted at
10th intervals in randomly selected wards in both Lagos Island and Lagos
Mainland. The collected data were analyzed descriptively using frequency tables
and mean-weighted analysis. The evaluation of the influence of environmental
characteristics on accessibility and mobility requirements involved analyzing
cumulative weighted values based on a 5-point Likert scale. This scale ranged
from Very Low (VL=1) to Very High (VH=5). The index for each variable was
determined by dividing the Summation of Weighted Values (SWV) by the total
number of responses. The analysis involved the summation of the product of the
number of responses for each aspect and the corresponding weight value
associated with each rating, as detailed in Table 3, formulated mathematically
as follows:
SWV
=
Where:
SWV = Summation of Weight Value,
Y
Therefore, the
higher the RMI, the higher the level of effectiveness for the variable under
consideration is and this is expressed quantitatively as:
RMI =
The
study involved the use of aggregate descriptive analysis. Meanwhile, Fisher's
Exact Test was used to test the hypothesis whether or not the environmental
peculiarities statistical significantly influence transport infrastructure
performance in Lagos Metropolis.
4. RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
4.1. Socio-economic
characteristics of residents
This section discusses the
findings on the socioeconomic characteristics of sampled residents in Lagos
Metropolis. According to the gender classification results in Table 1, more
than half (58.7%) of respondents are male, with the remaining 41.3% being female.
This is possible because males in a typical cosmopolitan city like Lagos are
more mobile than females. According to the results of the marital status data
analysis, the Metropolis has less than one-third of respondents who are single
(28.3%), close to two-thirds (61.6%) who are married, and one-tenth (10.0%) who
belong to other unclassified groups such as widows, widowers, and single
parents. Based on this result, it can be deduced that a significant number of
respondents are married, with associated marital duties and responsibilities
necessitating transportation infrastructure for the convenience of their
families' livelihood.
Furthermore, Table 1
revealed that 2.0% of respondents are between the ages of 15 and 20, while more
than one-tenth (14.1%) are between the ages of 21 and 30, and less than
one-quarter (18.4%) are between the ages of 31 and 40. Furthermore, slightly
more than a quarter (27.9%) are between the ages of 41 and 50, while less than
one-quarter (19.6%) are between the ages of 51 and 60, and the remaining 18.0%
are older than 60. As a result of the age classification results, a significant
proportion of respondents in Lagos Metropolis are within the working age range,
as only 2.0% and 18.0% are in the school-going age and retirement age,
respectively; thus, they are bound to be mobile for varying socioeconomic and
cultural engagements that require mobility and transportation infrastructure to
make a living in the metropolis.
Respondents' levels of
education varied, ranging from no formal education to a higher degree of
education. According to the findings, slightly more than one-tenth (11.5%) of
the population has no formal education, nearly one-tenth (10.7%) has adult
literacy education, and 10.4% have a primary level of education. However, less
than a quarter (21.8%) have a secondary level of education, nearly one-third
(31.2%) have a first degree or its equivalent, and the remaining 14.3% have a
higher degree level of education. This analysis shows that the respondents have
a high level of literacy and education, as only 11.5% have no formal education.
This demonstrates that respondents are familiar with mobility and
transportation infrastructure in the Metropolis, and thus their opinions can be
trusted. Table 1 shows the results of an analysis of respondents' employment
status, which revealed that only 5.7% were unemployed at the time of the
survey, while more than one-tenth (19.3%) were students or apprentices, and
more than a quarter (27.5%) were in personal or self-employment. Furthermore,
slightly less than one-quarter (20.0%) work in the public sector, 22.9% in the
private sector, and 4.4% are retirees. In this regard, the findings revealed
that the majority of respondents engage in economic activities that necessitate
a change in spatial position over a specific distance via transportation
infrastructure and mobility options; thus, they are engaged in the act of
mobility and accessibility options domiciled in the Metropolis in order to earn
livelihoods and sustenance. This clarifies the rationale for residents of
Lagos's typical transiting positions.
According to the data
analysis results presented in Table 1, respondents' average monthly income
ranges from less than ₦30,000 to more than ₦180,000. Only 5.8% earn less than the national minimum wage of ₦30,000 per month, while more than one-tenth (15.3%) earns between ₦30,000 and ₦90,000 and slightly less
than one-tenth (9.7%) earns between ₦90,001 and ₦120,000. In addition, nearly
one-quarter (18.8%) earn between ₦120,000 and ₦150,000 per month, slightly more than one-third (32.7%) earn between ₦150,000 and ₦180,000 per month, and the
remaining 17.8% earn more than ₦180,000 per month on
average. This demonstrates that a significant proportion of Lagos residents
earn more than the national minimum wage of ₦30,000 per month from various sources of economic engagement. The income
range of respondents in particular and residents of Lagos Metropolis reflects
the state's gross domestic product, which is widely regarded as the highest in
the country, Nigeria.
Given the findings in Table
1, it is interesting to note that respondents' religious affiliations and
practices in Lagos Metropolis have no negative impact on mobility and
accessibility. In this regard, nearly half of respondents (46.4%) engage in and
practice Islam, while slightly less than half equally practice Christianity.
Furthermore, those practicing traditional religion account for 9.1%, while the
remaining 3.6% practice other unclassified religions. According to the findings
of the analysis, there is no religious dichotomy in access to transportation
infrastructure and mobility options in the metropolis, implying the presence of
respondents practicing and engaging in various religious practices and beliefs.
The results of the socioeconomic characteristics of residents attest to Lagos'
cosmopolitan and global nature, which is reflected in the extent to which
residents use transportation infrastructure for spatial interaction rather than
trip-making.
Tab. 1
Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents
|
Type |
Variables |
Frequency |
% population |
|
Marital Status |
Single |
358 |
28.3 |
|
Married |
779 |
61.6 |
|
|
Others |
127 |
10.0 |
|
|
Gender Classification |
Male |
742 |
58.7 |
|
Female |
522 |
41.3 |
|
|
Age Classification |
Between 15 & 20 years |
25 |
2.0 |
|
Between 21 & 30 years |
178 |
14.1 |
|
|
Between 31 & 40 years |
232 |
18.4 |
|
|
Between 41 & 50 years |
353 |
27.9 |
|
|
Between 51 & 60 years |
248 |
19.6 |
|
|
More than 60 years |
228 |
18.0 |
|
|
Level of Education |
No formal education |
145 |
11.5 |
|
Adult literacy |
135 |
10.7 |
|
|
Primary school |
132 |
10.4 |
|
|
Secondary school |
276 |
21.8 |
|
|
First Degree/equivalent |
395 |
31.2 |
|
|
Higher degree |
181 |
14.3 |
|
Employment Status |
Unemployed |
74 |
5.9 |
|
Students |
244 |
19.3 |
|
|
Personal/self-employment |
247 |
27.5 |
|
|
Public service |
253 |
20.0 |
|
|
Private employment |
290 |
22.9 |
|
|
Retiree |
56 |
4,4 |
|
|
Average Monthly Income |
Less than ₦30,000 |
73 |
5.8 |
|
₦30,000 - ₦90,000 |
193 |
15.3 |
|
|
₦90,001 - ₦120,000 |
122 |
9.7 |
|
|
₦120,001 - ₦150,000 |
238 |
18.8 |
|
|
₦150,001 - ₦180,000 |
413 |
32.7 |
|
|
Above ₦180,000 |
227 |
17.8 |
4.2. Residents’ average daily distance travel
In terms of the average distance traveled to
work, school, and other non-discretionary trips, Table 2 shows that less than
one-quarter (20.6%) travels less than 5 km, one-tenth (10.0%) travels
between 5 km and 10 km daily, and more than one-tenth (14.2%) travels
between 11 km and 15 km. Furthermore, one-third (31.2%) travels
between 16 and 20 kilometers to work each day, while the remaining 24.1% travel
more than 20 kilometers. Importantly, this demonstrates that respondents travel
varying distances and near mileages to their workplaces on a daily basis and,
as a result, can travel to any length to engage in productive socioeconomic
endeavors. The daily distance traveled for shopping and market, on the other
hand, varies slightly. Specifically, less than one-third (286%) travels less
than 5 km per day, 13.1% travel between 5 and 10 km per day, and
slightly more than one-quarter (261%) travels between 11 and 15 km per
day. Furthermore, those who travel between 16 and 20 kilometers account for
19.9% of all trips, while the remaining 28.6% typically travel more than 20
kilometers in their daily shopping trips.
It is generally observed that respondents who
cover less than 5 km cover the shortest distance for visiting relatives
and social gatherings, and those who cover between 5 and 10 km for social trips
account for 36.5% and 35.9%, respectively, while less than a quarter (22.4%)
covers between 11 and 15 km for social engagement. However, only 5.1% and
0.1% cover between 16 and 20 km, respectively, and more than 20 km for social
trips. Table 2 shows that more than one-third (38.1%) of people travel less
than 5 kilometers to visit friends, relatives, and families, while nearly half
(47.5%) travel between 5 and 10 kilometers, and more than one-third (13.8%)
travel between 11 and 15 kilometers. This indicates that visits covering a long
distance receive special attention, and because it is discretionary, a
significant number of respondents have limited the distance covered to more
than 10 km for such trips to friends and relatives. Furthermore, the
analysis of data on the distance traveled to medical facilities revealed that
respondents could travel any spatial distance for medical treatment. Similarly,
respondents could travel any desired spatial distance for leisure and recreation.
Tab. 2
Distance travel to
key spatial locations
|
Range of distance |
Place of work/
School |
Shopping/ market |
Relatives/social
visits |
Recreation |
Medical facility |
|||||
|
Freq. |
% |
Freq. |
% |
Freq. |
% |
Freq. |
% |
Freq. |
% |
|
|
< 5km |
260 |
20.6 |
153 |
12.1 |
482 |
38.1 |
253 |
20.0 |
349 |
27.6 |
|
5-10 km |
125 |
10.0 |
168 |
13.3 |
601 |
47.5 |
175 |
13.8 |
383 |
30.3 |
|
11-15 km |
179 |
14.2 |
330 |
26.1 |
176 |
13.8 |
134 |
10.6 |
243 |
19.2 |
|
16-20 km |
394 |
31.2 |
252 |
19.9 |
6 |
0.5 |
454 |
35.9 |
235 |
18.6 |
|
> than 20 km |
306 |
24.1 |
362 |
28.6 |
0 |
0.0 |
249 |
19.6 |
55 |
4.3 |
|
Total |
1264 |
100.0 |
1264 |
100.0 |
1264 |
100.0 |
1264 |
100.0 |
1264 |
100.0 |
4.3. Perceived impact of environmental peculiarities on transportation
infrastructure
The data obtained on the nature of the perceived impact
of Lagos' environmental peculiarities on respondents' accessibility and
mobility requirements as measure of transportation infrastructure performance was
assessed using a developed scale known as the environmental peculiarity impact
index (EPII), which used the sum of a weighted value on a five-point Likert
scale. The identified impacts ranged from Very Low (VL = 1) to Low (L = 2),
Moderate (M = 3), High (H = 4), and Very High (VH = 5). The results of the
analysis based on the Equation 1 and Equation 2 produced a total of 31.3854
weighted values and a mean index value of 3.4873 with nine (9) indicators.
Meanwhile, the findings revealed that commuting stress (4.5522) is the most
notable impact of Lagos's environmental peculiarities, as shown in Table 3.
This is not surprising given the well-documented medical impact of Lagos
Metropolis' traffic quagmire, which is usually exacerbated by related
environmental scenarios such as rain downpours. Disruptions in traffic flow
(3.8272) are another distinct impact expressed by respondents as a result of
the environmental anomaly. The vehicle maintenance/cost of transportation fare
(3.7413) is ranked third, as motorists frequently increase transportation
astronomically during any minor downpour in the city, causing commuters to
groan for the duration of the downpour.
Moreover, the results revealed that wear and tear
(3.6930) and increased commuting time (3.6432) are closely related to
disruptions in traffic flow and increased journey duration (3.5316), which
occupy the sixth position in the analysis. Respondents rate the remaining
indicators, which include threat to life (3.3441) and traffic disruptions
(3.0303), as having less severe consequences. However, among the indicators,
modal choice and capacity are rated the lowest, with a RIM of (2.0222) denoting
less severe implications and being attributed by respondents to the city's
unique environmental characteristics.
Tab. 3
Perceived impact of environmental peculiarities on transportation
infrastructure performance
|
Nature of impacts |
VL |
L |
M |
H |
VH |
TWV |
RIM |
MIV |
Rank |
|
Travel/commuting time |
160 |
200 |
480 |
1820 |
1985 |
4605 |
3.6432 |
31.3854/9= 3.4873 |
5 |
|
Cost of vehicle
maintenance/transport fare |
125 |
192 |
531 |
1796 |
2085 |
4729 |
3.7413 |
3 |
|
|
Wear and tear |
104 |
412 |
447 |
1280 |
2425 |
4668 |
3.6930 |
4 |
|
|
Modal choice and capacity |
437 |
1104 |
342 |
288 |
295 |
2556 |
2.0222 |
9 |
|
|
Disruption of traffic flow |
71 |
318 |
363 |
1916 |
2170 |
4838 |
3.8275 |
2 |
|
|
Journey duration |
107 |
422 |
537 |
1748 |
1650 |
4464 |
3.5316 |
6 |
|
|
Trip disruptions |
227 |
566 |
474 |
1616 |
960 |
3843 |
3.0303 |
8 |
|
|
Threats to life |
85 |
378 |
1344 |
1160 |
1260 |
4227 |
3.3441 |
7 |
|
|
Commuting stress |
0 |
0 |
24 |
1560 |
3830 |
5754 |
4.5522 |
1 |
NB: Very Low
(VL), Low (L), Moderate (M), High (H), Very High (VH), Total Weighted Value
(TWV), Relative Index Mean (RIM) and Mean Index Value (MIV)
4.3.1. Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis 1 (H0): Environmental peculiarities does
not significantly influence transportation infrastructure performance in Lagos
Metropolis
In a bid to understand the statistical
influence of the environmental peculiarities on transportation infrastructure
performance, further studies were conducted on the association between the
environmental peculiarities and the transportation infrastructure performance
using Fisher’s Exact Test under cross-tabulation analysis. The cross-tabulation
analysis equivocally uses the Fisher’s Exact Test to explain the
relationship between the categorical variable (environmental peculiarities)
which was measured by the water level or water table of the respondents’
respective locations which ranges between 0m-5m for those within Lagos Island
and 35m-40m for location within the Lagos mainland) and a group of independent
variables which include travel commuting time, cost of travel/transportation
fare, wear and tear/cost of vehicle maintenance, modal choice capacity, traffic
flow, journey duration, trip disruption/cancellation, threats of life and
commuting stress, all of which were used to measure the transportation
infrastructure performance.
Based on the cross-tabulation results
presented in Table 4, it can be deduced that the impact of environmental
peculiarities on transportation infrastructure performance is mostly high and
very high across the study area with six (6) out of the nine (9) independent
variables used to measure transportation infrastructure performance scored high
percentage, above 60%. These include travel time (66%), cost of travel (69%),
wear and tear (69%), traffic flow (72%), journey time (61%) and commuting
stress (93%), while the remaining three which include impact of modal choice
capacity, trip disruption and cancellation and threats to life scored low or
very low-impact level of environmental peculiarities. The observed higher
percentage score is experienced both in the areas with 5m and 38m water level
across the metropolis. By implication, regardless of the respondents’
location in the study area, the environmental peculiarities of Lagos affect or
influence the transportation infrastructure performance. In other words, the
correspondent analysis revealed that the impact of environmental peculiarities
of travel or commuting time of respondents is high (44%) on Lagos Island and
very high (36%) on Lagos Mainland; the cost of travel is very high (42%) in
Lagos Island and high (38%) on the Mainland. On the cost of maintenance, the
impact of environmental peculiarities is very high (42%) and (37%) on Lagos
Island and Lagos Mainland, respectively.
Furthermore, the test of statistical
relationship between the categorical variable (environmental peculiarities) and
the distribution of another group of variables (transportation infrastructure
performance) through the Fisher’s Exact Test and Phi. Cramer’s V
revealed that all the nine (9) examined transportation infrastructure
performance variables, significantly influenced by environmental peculiarities
with adverse experiences of the residents. These have their calculated
significant values (p-values) for the three tests of significance level at
0.05; hence, the decision to accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) and reject
the null hypothesis (H0). This implies that the observed environmental
peculiarities significantly influence transportation infrastructure performance
in the Lagos Metropolis and as such, affects the residents’ mobility and
accessibility experiences. By implication of this analysis, the regional
disparity between Lagos Island and Lagos Mainland undoubtedly manifests in
adverse effects of environmental peculiarities in the Metropolis and impactful
severely on transportation infrastructure across the Lagos Metropolis. Positively,
it creates opportunities for enhancing modal options (water mode) on the island
and other coastal areas of the Metropolis towards improving travel time,
traffic flow, and journey time. Meanwhile, the environmental peculiarities
influenced the cost of travel, threats to life, commuting stress, trip
disruptions and cancellations, as well as cost of maintenance and repairs,
especially in Lagos Island than the Island areas, while there is longer
commuting distance and time in the Lagos Mainland than the Island, hence, the
need to revisit transportation infrastructure vis-à-vis environmental
peculiarities of Lagos Metropolis. This is as consistent to the findings of 20
and 21on the need for government investment on road infrastructure.
Tab.
4.
Fisher’s
exact test of environmental peculiarities
and transportation infrastructure performance
|
Transportation infrastructure performance |
Ranking |
Environmental
peculiarities |
Fisher’s
Exact Test |
Phi
Cramer’V Test |
||||
|
5m |
38m |
Total |
Value |
Sig. |
Val. |
Sig. |
||
|
Travel/commuting
time |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
51 42 48 158 63 362 |
109 58 112 297 326 902 |
160 100 160 455 389 1264 |
49.950 |
0.000 |
0.194 |
0.000 |
|
Cost
of travel |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
46 13 42 109 152 362 |
79 83 135 340 265 902 |
125 96 177 449 417 1264 |
34.123 |
0.000 |
0.163 |
0.000 |
|
Cost of maintenance/ Wear and tear |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
48 51 26 86 151 362 |
56 155 123 234 334 902 |
104 206 149 320 485 1264 |
27.629 |
0.000 |
0.149 |
0.000 |
|
Disruption
of traffic flow |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
21 28 39 136 138 362 |
50 131 82 343 296 902 |
71 159 121 479 434 1264 |
13.105 |
0.011 |
0.099 |
0.015 |
|
Journey
duration |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
46 44 35 124 113 362 |
61 167 144 313 217 902 |
107 211 179 437 330 1264 |
29.170 |
0.000 |
0.152 |
0.000 |
|
Trip
disruption or cancellation |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
63 80 52 132 35 362 |
164 203 106 272 157 902 |
227 283 158 404 192 1264 |
15.572 |
0.004 |
0.109 |
0.005 |
|
Modal
choice capacity |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
124 154 25 35 24 362 |
313 398 119 37 35 902 |
437 552 144 72 59 1264 |
26.724 |
0.000 |
0.147 |
0.000 |
|
Threats
to life |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
9 40 137 81 95 362 |
76 149 311 209 157 902 |
85 189 448 290 252 1264 |
31.551 |
0.000 |
0.153 |
0.000 |
|
Commuting
stress |
Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total |
0 0 11 138 213 362 |
0 0 77 252 573 902 |
0 0 88 390 786 1264 |
21.881 |
0.000 |
0.128 |
0.000 |
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Lagos is facing significant environmental and transportation
infrastructure challenges, while the transportation infrastructure performance
in Lagos has been a major concern for the residents who have been experiencing
various environmental peculiarities, including salinity, large water bodies,
and sea level and high-water table, which have greatly impacted their daily
lives in all ramifications. For
instance, the presence of water bodies and sea level rise has led to flooding,
erosion, and early destruction of transportation infrastructure with adverse
impacts on the mobility, accessibility and spatial interactions of
residents. It is on this basis that
this study examined residents’ experiences with Lagos’
environmental peculiarities and transportation infrastructure performance.
The study, however, observed that the regional uniqueness of Lagos
between the Island and Mainland is characterized by its small landmass and
aquatic nature as well as other underlying environmental attributes which are
associated with coastal settlements across the globe. As a result, the study
established that high water table and salinity are salient environmental
peculiarities in Lagos Metropolis that significantly affect, influence, and
shape residents’ commuting and spatial interaction experiences. These
environmental peculiarities have caused damage to transportation
infrastructure, disruptions of modal choice operation, commuting stress and a
threat to the livelihoods. Therefore, transportation infrastructure performance
in Lagos has been subpar, leading to traffic congestion, delays, and accidents
leading to the deterioration of the living conditions in Lagos.
Considering the above, the study concludes that environmental
peculiarities of Lagos compound commuting stress, speed up the rate of wear and
tear of transportation infrastructure, and exacerbate transportation
infrastructure performance. As a result, the government, both the Federal and
Lagos State Government needs to take urgent action to address these environmental
challenges and improve the transportation infrastructure performance in the
commercial and industrial nerve center of the country to ensure that
residents’ needs are met in making Lagos a sustainable and livable city.
As such, the government must take action to address environmental peculiarities
of the city and also, involve the residents in the decision-making process.
Therefore, the implementation of policies and programmes that promote
sustainable transportation infrastructure development, especially intensification
of the construction of sea walls to mitigate the effects of sea-level rise,
developing new water sources, and improving the public transportation system in
the city become indispensable. Moreover, sustenance of collaborations with
international organizations and private sectors to fund sustainable
transportation infrastructure projects, and the involvement of the residents in
decision-making processes are indispensable at improving the environment and
transportation infrastructure performance in Lagos.
In other words, relevant stakeholders have to prioritize the development
of sustainable environmental and transportation policies and strategies to
mitigate the impact of environmental peculiarities such as high water table, salinity,
and sea level rise, and also, improving the transportation infrastructure
performance in the city through provision of robust
drainage systems, incorporating corrosion-resistant materials in transportation
infrastructure deployment, and adopting innovative technologies to mitigate the
repercussions of rising sea levels on critical transportation infrastructure
which enhances its resilience in the face of environmental challenges, provision of more efficient public transportation
systems, increased investment in alternative transportation modes such as
cycling and walking, and encourage community involvement and response
strategies to address the environmental peculiarity induced challenges faced by
the residents especially during commuting.
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Received 21.10.2023; accepted in
revised form 11.12.2023
Scientific Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series
Transport is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
[1] Department of Transport
Planning and Management, The Oke-Ogun Polytechnic, Saki, Nigeria. Email: ademolakanmu@gmail.com.
ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9264-5863
[2] Department of Urban and
Regional Planning, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria.
Email: umar.salisu@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng.
ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1630-3420